(
This work has been selected by scholars as being cultur...)
This work has been selected by scholars as being culturally important, and is part of the knowledge base of civilization as we know it. This work was reproduced from the original artifact, and remains as true to the original work as possible. Therefore, you will see the original copyright references, library stamps (as most of these works have been housed in our most important libraries around the world), and other notations in the work.
This work is in the public domain in the United States of America, and possibly other nations. Within the United States, you may freely copy and distribute this work, as no entity (individual or corporate) has a copyright on the body of the work.
As a reproduction of a historical artifact, this work may contain missing or blurred pages, poor pictures, errant marks, etc. Scholars believe, and we concur, that this work is important enough to be preserved, reproduced, and made generally available to the public. We appreciate your support of the preservation process, and thank you for being an important part of keeping this knowledge alive and relevant.
Governments and Parties in Continental Europe; Volume 2
(
This work has been selected by scholars as being cultur...)
This work has been selected by scholars as being culturally important, and is part of the knowledge base of civilization as we know it. This work was reproduced from the original artifact, and remains as true to the original work as possible. Therefore, you will see the original copyright references, library stamps (as most of these works have been housed in our most important libraries around the world), and other notations in the work.
This work is in the public domain in the United States of America, and possibly other nations. Within the United States, you may freely copy and distribute this work, as no entity (individual or corporate) has a copyright on the body of the work.
As a reproduction of a historical artifact, this work may contain missing or blurred pages, poor pictures, errant marks, etc. Scholars believe, and we concur, that this work is important enough to be preserved, reproduced, and made generally available to the public. We appreciate your support of the preservation process, and thank you for being an important part of keeping this knowledge alive and relevant.
Colonial Civil Service: The Selection and Training of Colonial Officials in England, Holland, and Fr
(This is a pre-1923 historical reproduction that was curat...)
This is a pre-1923 historical reproduction that was curated for quality. Quality assurance was conducted on each of these books in an attempt to remove books with imperfections introduced by the digitization process. Though we have made best efforts - the books may have occasional errors that do not impede the reading experience. We believe this work is culturally important and have elected to bring the book back into print as part of our continuing commitment to the preservation of printed works worldwide.
Annual Report of the Director of the Museum of Comparative Zoölogy at Harvard College to the President and Fellows of Harvard College for 1924-1925 (Classic Reprint)
(Excerpt from Annual Report of the Director of the Museum ...)
Excerpt from Annual Report of the Director of the Museum of Comparative Zoölogy at Harvard College to the President and Fellows of Harvard College for 1924-1925
The William and Adelaide Barbour Fund has been increased through generous gifts of Mrs. Rosamond P. Barbour and of Mr. Frederick K. Barbour and monetary gifts of several subscribers for present use have been applied for curatorial services upon the research collections of birds and other vertebrates.
These gifts to the funds and for present use are gratefully ao knowledged by vote of the Corporation.
The inadequateness of resources as to services and equipment throughout the Museum has been emphasized with such monoto nous frequency during recent years, that the acquisition for the ornithological department of the large room on the fifth floor, providing as it does for the immediate needs and growth of the important collection of birds, is in all respects most satisfactory.
About the Publisher
Forgotten Books publishes hundreds of thousands of rare and classic books. Find more at www.forgottenbooks.com
This book is a reproduction of an important historical work. Forgotten Books uses state-of-the-art technology to digitally reconstruct the work, preserving the original format whilst repairing imperfections present in the aged copy. In rare cases, an imperfection in the original, such as a blemish or missing page, may be replicated in our edition. We do, however, repair the vast majority of imperfections successfully; any imperfections that remain are intentionally left to preserve the state of such historical works.
The Transfer of Stock in Private Corporations (Classic Reprint)
(Excerpt from The Transfer of Stock in Private Corporation...)
Excerpt from The Transfer of Stock in Private Corporations
Abeles v. Cochran 25 Abercrombie v. Riddle 52 Adderly v. Storm 53, 98, 202 Agricultural Bank v. Burr 33, Aitken v. Woodside 87 Albert v. Baltimore Savings Bank 16591.
About the Publisher
Forgotten Books publishes hundreds of thousands of rare and classic books. Find more at www.forgottenbooks.com
This book is a reproduction of an important historical work. Forgotten Books uses state-of-the-art technology to digitally reconstruct the work, preserving the original format whilst repairing imperfections present in the aged copy. In rare cases, an imperfection in the original, such as a blemish or missing page, may be replicated in our edition. We do, however, repair the vast majority of imperfections successfully; any imperfections that remain are intentionally left to preserve the state of such historical works.
The Influence of Party Upon Legislation in England and America
(Unlike some other reproductions of classic texts (1) We h...)
Unlike some other reproductions of classic texts (1) We have not used OCR(Optical Character Recognition), as this leads to bad quality books with introduced typos. (2) In books where there are images such as portraits, maps, sketches etc We have endeavoured to keep the quality of these images, so they represent accurately the original artefact. Although occasionally there may be certain imperfections with these old texts, we feel they deserve to be made available for future generations to enjoy.
Abbott Lawrence Lowell was an American educator and scholar. He served as President of Harvard University from 1909 to 1933.
Background
Abbott Lawrence Lowell was born on December 13, 1856 in Boston, Massachusetts, United States, the second of three sons and seven children of Augustus and Katharine Bigelow (Lawrence) Lowell. Of the five children who survived infancy, two others won distinction--the oldest, Percival, the astronomer, and the youngest, Amy, the poet. The Lowells constituted a Boston-Harvard dynasty of wealth and culture, notable for judgeships, trusteeships, and entrepreneurship in manufacturing and banking. Abbott Lawrence Lowell especially admired his grandfather John Amory Lowell, for many years a member of the Harvard Corporation.
He was named for his maternal grandfather, Abbott Lawrence, one of the most conspicuous "self-made men" of his day, who won a fortune in textiles, served as ambassador to Great Britain, and founded the Lawrence Scientific School at Harvard. A. Lawrence Lowell (as he became known) was said to combine the reserve of the Lowells with the geniality of the Lawrences. From childhood, he was physically hardy, cheerful, and uncomplicated. His mother, an invalid, influenced him less than did his father, the autocratic and effective president of various banks and insurance companies, who instilled the family tradition of achievement.
Education
Lowell attended the boarding school of a Mr. Kornemann in Paris for two years. His ease with foreign languages stemmed from this experience. In Boston he studied at the school of W. Eliot Fette. He pursued preparatory studies at George W. C. Noble's private classical school, entering Harvard in 1873. Five generations of Lowells had preceded him there.
He roomed in a private dwelling, first with his brother, then with his cousin and future brother-in-law, Francis Cabot Lowell. Classmates remembered him as rather uncomradely, and he later regretted having known so few of them. The long-legged, barrel-chested Lowell was noted, however, for winning several distance races in track competition. To the distress of his father, Lowell made a mediocre academic record at Mr. Noble's and as a college freshman, but during his sophomore year he blossomed. Although he recalled favorably the teaching of Henry Adams and William James, he was especially inspired by the mathematics classes of Benjamin Peirce. He took second-year honors in mathematics and graduated cum laude with highest final honors in that field. In recalling mathematics as excellent training, he claimed to have learned from it that matters are generally true or false within limits, rather than absolutely.
Lowell entered the Harvard Law School in 1877 and chose the option of examinations without residence for the work of the third year. He won the Bachelor of Laws cum laude in 1880, ranking second in the class. He later described his greatest gain from law school as "a conception of the varying probative value of evidence. " Lessons of relativism thus marked both his undergraduate and his professional training. He continued to study law in the Boston law firm of Russell and Putnam.
Career
Lowell formed in 1880 a firm with Francis Cabot Lowell, joined in 1891 by Frederic J. Stimson. Lawrence Lowell worked chiefly in probate and investment management for charitable bodies. Although he once aspired to the United States Supreme Court, he was a self-described failure as a lawyer, apparently too impatient with the petty details of many cases. Lowell found some outlet for his talents in managing the family trust established by his father, and in the Brahmin tradition of educational trusteeship. He followed his father as a member of the Corporation of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1890 and as sole trustee of the Lowell Institute, a foundation for adult education, in 1900. In 1895 he was elected to the Boston School Committee with the backing of the Democrats; three years later he failed of reelection. The one reform in school procedure to his credit--the shift of responsibility for teacher appointment to the superintendent--identified him with the rising professionalization of the era. Another possibility for his frustrated ambitions was scholarship. In collaboration with F. C. Lowell he published The Transfer of Stock in Private Corporations (1884). More suggestive of his shifting interest was his Essays on Government (1889), a copy of which his father proudly sent to James Bryce. Though the book drew little attention, its preference for American institutions over British contrasted sharply with Woodrow Wilson's recent defense of cabinet government. The two men began to correspond and became friends, Lowell finding Wilson's educational ideas highly attractive. Later he turned much of his energy to the writing of his Governments and Parties in Continental Europe (2 vols. , 1896).
In 1897 Lowell received an invitation to teach at Harvard. Lowell immediately resigned from his law firm, even though the appointment was a part-time, nonpermanent lectureship. In 1900 he accepted a professorship in government, but set the condition that he teach half time at half salary so that he could continue writing. As teacher, scholar, and institutional reformer he applied himself tirelessly and imaginatively, as if to overcome his late entry into academic life. At first he taught only a small advanced course on modern governments, but in 1898-1899 he collaborated in teaching Government 1, an introductory course on constitutional government. By 1901 he had taken complete charge of the course, and its yearly enrollment soared to about four hundred.
Lowell's scholarship flourished alongside his teaching. Two articles in the Harvard Law Review suggested his relativistic interpretation in matters of law. "The Judicial Use of Torture" (November 25 and December 25, 1897) attributed resort to torture to the requirement of complete proof. "The Status of Our New Possessions--A Third View" (November 1899), which was cited with approval by the Supreme Court in the Insular Cases, argued that the Constitutional guarantees of citizens' rights did not apply to residents of newly acquired lands, since many such rights "are inapplicable except among a people whose social and political evolution has been consonant with our own. " Two short books, The Government of Dependencies (1899) and Colonial Civil Service (1900), applied Lowell's knowledge of comparative government to America's new colonial problems.
In 1908 he published The Government of England. In preparing it, he frequently visited Great Britain, and he claimed to learn less from reading than from talking with the men involved. Lowell objected to suggestions that his book was "description without prophecy" and later prided himself on his prediction that the British Empire was destined to drift apart. The appearance of this scholarly monument conveniently enhanced Lowell's candidacy for the Harvard presidency, vacated in 1909 after a forty-year tenure by the renowned Charles W. Eliot. Lowell had already made his educational views known. Though he applauded Eliot's strengthening of the professional schools at Harvard, he was displeased by tendencies in the college, notably extreme student liberty under the free elective system and emphasis on vocational motivation.
Lowell had been the driving force on the landmark Committee on Improving Instruction in Harvard College, chaired by Dean Le Baron R. Briggs. Its report in 1903, drawing on innovative questionnaires to faculty and students, criticized overspecialization, labeled the average amount of study "discreditably small, " and singled out large lecture courses as lacking rigor. In the ensuing years, Lowell served on three other committees which sought to heighten intellectual ambition and achievement in the college. Of the third, appointed in 1908, he was chairman. Its report, through a provocative comparison of attitudes toward study in the college and the law school, indicated widespread undergraduate acquiescence in mediocrity. Placing principal blame on the free elective system, it recommended required concentration and distribution in each undergraduate's choice of studies. This reform passed in 1910, requiring a concentration of at least six courses in one field and the distribution among various divisions of six courses (later, to Lowell's regret, reduced to four). Without a serious competitor, Lowell was elected president of Harvard in January 1909 and took up his duties in May. His inaugural that October concentrated on the state of the college, suggesting new institutional forms to fulfill his educational ideals.
Overflowing with energy, Lowell did not seem fifty-two years old, despite a scholarly droop to his shoulders. Disliking faculty meetings, which tended to be long-winded, he encouraged the faculty of arts and sciences to transfer considerable power to the committee on instruction, comprising all department chairmen. To counter the view that course-taking was equivalent to education, Lowell helped establish general examinations in fields of concentration, a Harvard innovation in American education. Introduced first by the medical faculty, general examinations spread gradually to various divisions in the college. This requirement led logically to the tutorial system, under which a faculty member aided the student in correlating course material, supervised reading beyond courses, and stimulated intellectual ambition. (Both innovations drew on English models. ) Out of the burden tutorials imposed on faculty members grew the "reading period"--about three weeks at the end of each semester when most teaching stopped and students studied independently. Such curricular changes heightened the intellectual quality of undergraduate life. With Lowell's encouragement, the number of students seeking degrees with distinction in their specialties gradually rose.
In his efforts to renew the sense of community, Lowell effected two dramatic changes in undergraduate residential patterns. Under a plan announced in his inaugural, freshmen were required to live together in newly constructed halls, beginning in 1914. Seeking "democratic social life, " Lowell was especially concerned that boys from private preparatory schools not settle into cliques. The second residential reform, the Harvard House Plan, was an idea long in gestation; what came suddenly was the money. Edward S. Harkness, finding his alma mater, Yale, dilatory in accepting his proposal to finance a residential college plan, called on Lowell in November 1928. The latter, well aware of what was in the offing, is reported by legend to have accepted Harkness's offer in ten seconds. Although at first only an honors college was planned, the scheme expanded to include enough "houses" for all members of the upper three classes. Harkness ultimately gave $13, 000, 000 for the undertaking. The first two units opened in 1930, five more the next year. Resembling the colleges at Oxford and Cambridge, each house had its own master, resident tutors, dining room, and library. In the planning and construction of the freshman halls and the houses, Lowell took meticulous daily care. This visible concern for student life, his fondness for walking, and his regular chapel attendance and scripture reading made him a pervasive presence to students, even though most did not meet him.
Although he strove to remove professional courses from the college, Lowell was eager to see the professional schools prosper. The merger of Harvard's engineering school and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, of which Lowell was the principal author and for which he fought tenaciously, was ended by court order in 1917. Less traumatically, a court order dissolved the union between Harvard Divinity School and Andover Theological Seminary. In 1920 Lowell helped to establish the Graduate School of Business Administration. The medical and law schools, thoroughly reformed under Eliot, continued their national preeminence under Lowell. Lowell, whose creed was to choose excellent men or none--never "good" men--considered permanent appointments to the faculty his responsibility, though of course there was consultation. Sometimes accused of autocratic ways, he was nevertheless popular with his faculty, increasingly so during the course of his administration. He withdrew Harvard from forestry, leaving the field to Yale, and by acquiescing in the move of George Pierce Baker to Yale in 1924 he similarly conceded the field of playwriting and theatre production. Although there was criticism of both these economy measures, Lowell found satisfaction in budget surpluses during the 1920's which allowed him to avoid faculty salary cuts after the 1929 crash. His veto of a larger stadium was later praised by his athletics director. Although he rarely solicited gifts himself, major fund drives were launched, and during Lowell's administration Harvard's endowment rose from $22, 716, 000 to $128, 520, 000. (Lowell himself gave several million dollars to Harvard. ) Foundation grants allowed major expansions, and an annual alumni appeal began in 1926.
Lowell played a major part in creating and naming the League to Enforce Peace, an organization begun in 1915 by a group of Eastern internationalists. Lowell convinced others that to bring disputes between nations to arbitration, force must be authorized, and that its application should come automatically without special conferences of the powers. Former President William Howard Taft, strongly influenced by Lowell, became president of the League. As chairman of its executive committee, Lowell publicized its proposals with magazine articles and speaking tours. Partly because its founders were chiefly Republicans, the League's relations with President Wilson were problematic.
Early in 1918 Taft and Lowell presented Wilson with a draft plan for an international organization, chiefly Lowell's work, but they yielded to Wilson's request that no detailed plan be made public. When the League of Nations Covenant emerged from the Paris Peace Conference, Taft, Lowell, and others in the League to Enforce Peace campaigned in its behalf, attending specially organized regional congresses. At Lowell's suggestion, a series of articles, "The Covenanter, " modeled on The Federalist, was published anonymously in various newspapers, with Lowell writing half of them. Lowell was willing to have the League of Nations with or without reservations. "The question for a citizen of the United States, " he wrote, "is not whether the Covenant represents his views precisely, but whether on the whole it is good or not, and whether this country had better accept it or not". In a public debate on March 19, 1919, Lowell sought unsuccessfully to force Senator Henry Cabot Lodge to pledge himself to support the Covenant if his suggested changes were made. The League to Enforce Peace later circulated amendments suggested by Lowell and Taft, and in October 1919 Lowell conferred with Republican Senators who favored passage with mild reservations. He joined in criticism of Article 10 of the Covenant (pledging protection of the territorial integrity of member states against external aggression), arguing that this would not in fact restrain an aggressor. He placed his hopes in the sanctions provided in Article 16. For the failure of ratification in the Senate, Lowell blamed the intransigence of both Lodge and Wilson, though he judged Wilson's responsibility greater. Concluding that Harding's election was inevitable and hoping to counteract the view that the election was a referendum on the League of Nations, Lowell helped draft the "Statement of the Thirty-One Republicans, " published October 14, 1920, which argued that supporters of the League could properly vote for Harding, who would support a modified League. Some League advocates interpreted this as a betrayal, but Lowell insisted that it helped elevate internationalism above partisanship.
Lowell's retirement as president of Harvard in 1933 (he was seventy-six and suffered increasing deafness) was brightened by the creation during his last year of the Society of Fellows. The new program reflected Lowell's complaints against pedantry and formalism in graduate schools. Twenty-four young college graduates were to be appointed junior fellows, to reside at Harvard with generous stipends for three years, free from academic obligations, but with access to university facilities. They were to dine weekly with senior fellows, chosen from the Harvard faculty; Lowell was one of the seven elected the first year. The Society allowed Lowell a continuing role at Harvard and brought him into close relationship with young men of promise, and they responded to his interest with confidence and affection. Lowell's major scholarly endeavors had ceased when he assumed the presidency, but he published two series of lectures, Public Opinion and Popular Government (1913) and Public Opinion in War and Peace (1923). These books showed him unsure about the endurance of popular government, but convinced that use and control of experts would be central to the outcome. Conflicts of Principle (1932) reasserted his resistance to absolutes. In retirement he continued writing and public speaking. At War with Academic Traditions in America (1934) and What a University President Has Learned (1938) helped continue interest in his educational theories.
Lowell read the Bible nightly and often drew on religious images. He maintained his connection with King's Chapel all his life and was for a time its treasurer, but he ceased to regard himself as a Unitarian, resisting any sense of denominationalism.
Politics
In politics Lowell called himself an independent Republican, and he voted for Cleveland in 1884 and 1892 and for Wilson at least once. His position on Progressive reforms was mixed. He favored tariff reduction, woman suffrage, and immigration restriction; he opposed recall of judges and the initiative and referendum. In 1916 he joined a group petitioning the Senate to reject the Supreme Court nomination of Louis D. Brandeis on grounds that Brandeis did not enjoy the confidence of the Massachusetts bar.
Lowell opposed most New Deal measures, which he feared would develop bitter class antagonism and undermine character. In 1935 he vainly suggested a new party of conservative Republicans and Democrats to be called the "Constitutional Party, " and in 1937 he gave radio addresses attacking Roosevelt's "court-packing" plan and the proposed child labor amendment. In foreign affairs he strongly opposed appeasement, calling for sanctions against Japan in the fall of 1937 even at the risk of war. When war came to Europe, he spoke by radio in favor of arms for France and England. As to postwar peace-keeping, he argued that any plan viewed as a panacea would defeat itself.
Views
Lowell was an advocate of liberal culture and he insisted that achievement in a special field was not an adequate outcome of a college education. He spoke in favor of the "well-rounded man" and recommended general courses that could acquaint a student with a field without the assumption that he was a future specialist in it. The college should give the student standards of judgment and develop his mental powers so that he could continue to grow intellectually. It could do this only by breaking free of utilitarianism. Only in college, Lowell reasoned, could students be made to love learning and aspire to high scholarship, for the graduate school had turned out to be merely another professional school, whose students docilely followed their specialties. Strongly concerned for community, Lowell called on the college to provide "an intellectual and social cohesion. " Lacking that, the student would have no valid standards, no recognition for his achievement, and no satisfaction in the achievement of others. Nor would he attain breadth unless he could associate with those whose special interests differed from his own. Besides intellectual gains, Lowell contended, living with other students in a democratic atmosphere of fellowship would build a strong character.
Lowell was also a leading spokesman for academic freedom during World War I and the postwar reaction. When an alumnus threatened to cancel a ten-million-dollar legacy to Harvard if it continued to tolerate the pro-German professor Hugo Münsterberg, Lowell took the opportunity to place the university on high ground with a classic argument for the freedom of professors, stressing their right to the constitutional liberties of all citizens. During the Boston police strike of 1919, when Lowell was urging Harvard students to replace the strikers, Harold J. Laski, then an untenured lecturer at Harvard, spoke out for the strike. Lowell resisted hints from Harvard's Board of Overseers that Laski should go, responding, "If the Overseers ask for Laski's resignation they will get mine!" Another potential confrontation with that body came in 1921 when it appointed a committee to investigate complaints against Professor Zechariah Chafee for alleged misstatements in criticizing a prosecution under the Espionage Act of 1918. At the hearing Lowell virtually acted as Chafee's defense counsel, and the committee recommended against any action. The case won Lowell approving words in Upton Sinclair's critique of higher education in the United States, The Goose-Step (1923), though the author depicted Lowell as a tool of State Street where public utility interests were involved.
Lowell believed that endowed universities, by bringing students of different regions and social classes together, served a nationalizing function for which state universities were ill adapted. But in regard to ethnic variety at Harvard, he twice held stubbornly to restrictive positions which aroused strong opposition. Although residence in freshman halls was supposedly compulsory, African-American freshmen were not allowed to live there. In 1922-1923 protest from both an African-American freshman and influential alumni drew much publicity and gave Lowell what he called a "hideous time. " The Corporation formally supported Lowell, saying there would be no compulsory association between the races, but practice was modified by admitting some African-American freshmen to out-of-the-way college quarters.
At the same time Lowell grew concerned over the proportion of Jewish students at Harvard, which had increased from 7 percent in 1900 to more than 21 percent in 1922. An assimilationist, Lowell argued that the number of Jews should be kept at a level that would foster their absorption by the larger "American" culture; he also feared a "saturation point" beyond which gentiles would withdraw. His public recommendation for an admission quota for Jewish students was blocked by the Overseers, and he concluded that he had been howled down by men who preferred hypocrisy.
Quotations:
"All social life, stability, progress, depend upon each man's confidence in his neighbor, a reliance upon him to do his duty. "
"The mark of an educated man is the ability to make a reasoned guess on the basis of insufficient information. "
"Of course there's a lot of knowledge in universities: the freshmen bring a little in; the seniors don't take much away, so knowledge sort of accumulates. "
"There's a Harvard man on the wrong side of every question. "
"You will be courteous to your elders who have explored to the point from which you may advance; and helpful to your juniors who will progress farther by reason of your labors. "
Personality
With a handsome face and an urbane presence, Lowell was gregarious and voluble, and his talk among friends was witty, informing, and frank. Often at a Boston luncheon club he was the last to leave the table. In more formal situations, however, he could be austere. He did not grant interviews to newspapermen. Some of his faculty complained that he was too impatient and talkative to be a good listener and that he made others feel clumsy. He held students' attention with an easy, nonoratorical style, spiced with anecdotes.
Lowell was also an effective speaker, but he was suspicious of publicity and believed that frequent public appearances demeaned the office of university president. He often spoke at other academic institutions, however, and developed excellent interinstitutional relations, winning acknowledgment as the leading university president of his day. He called himself "an incurable optimist, " but displayed growing querulousness, especially after suffering injuries in an automobile accident in 1936.
Interests
Lowell was interested in wood-chopping.
Connections
On June 19, 1879, in King's Chapel (Unitarian) in Boston, Lowell married his distant cousin Anna Parker Lowell, daughter of George Gardner Lowell, and the couple, who remained childless, established a home in the Back Bay. His wife died in 1930.