Mahmud of Ghazni was the most successful ruler of Ghaznavid Empire, which included parts of modern Afghanistan, Iran, and northwestern India. He is considered to be the first ruler with the title of Sultan. Aside from his numerous conquests of India and extending his empire, Mahmud is known for developing the city of Ghazni into a cultural center of the entire region.
Background
Ethnicity:
Turkic represents a broad ethno-linguistic group of people that live in central, eastern, northern, and western Asia as well as parts of eastern Europe
Mahmud of Ghazni was born in 971 in Ghazni, which is today a part of Afghanistan. Abu Mansur Sabuktigin was a former Turkic slave and warrior who managed to take control of Ghazni. Sabuktigin is considered to be the one that founded Ghaznavid dynasty. As for his mother, sources differ from her being a daughter of a Persian noble from Zabulistan to that she was a slave. Either way, it is presumed she wasn't Sabuktigin's principal wife. It is also known that Mahmud had one younger brother called Ismail and a sister Sitr-i-Mu'alla.
Education
Not much is known about Mahmud’s education but it is believed that his father secured him to be trained in various fields, including warfare and administration, as well as statecraft, all that with the goal of preparing him as his successor. In 994, Mahmud participated in a military campaign of capturing Khorasan from rebels.
Considering all this, it came as a surprise that, when Sabuktigin died in 997, he didn’t make Mahmud the ruler of Ghazni but instead decided for his younger son, Ismail. It is believed that Mahmud and Sabuktigin had some kind of a quarrel and this is the reason why the latter acted like this. However, Mahmud didn’t want to make peace with this decision. He first offered Ismail to divide the kingdom and let him keep Ghazni but, when Ismail refused, Mahmud launched an attack to overthrow him. This led to the Battle of Ghazni in 998, where he defeated Ismail and became the Emir of Ghazni.
Career
The first thing that Mahmud had to do when he gained control of the Ghaznavid Empire was to strengthen his position. For political reasons, he had to give nominal allegiance to the Abbasid caliph located in Baghdad. Despite this, Mahmud was an independent ruler and the caliphate acknowledged him as the ruler of the lands under his control and even supported his conquests.
He conquered Sistan and ended the rule of Saffarid dynasty in 1000. The following year, Mahmud was granted the title of Sultan (“rulership”, “authority) by the caliphate. In turn, he vowed that he will invade India every year, concentrating particularly on the Punjab region, which was very wealthy and fertile. Between 1001 and 1026, Mahmud managed to organize a total of 17 invasions on India, annexing the Punjab region and expanding his empire significantly, as well as increasing his wealth.
Mahmud was attracted by the loot he could get and this is how he chose which places he would invade. He attacked the Ismaili state Multan in 1005-6, massacring the Ismailis in the process. One of his last campaigns in 1024 is also memorable because not only he raided the city of Somnath, but he also sacked the Somnath Temple. Allegedly, Mahmud himself broke its jyotirlinga (devotional object) and ordered for its stone fragments to be carried back to Ghazni and placed into the steps of the Jama Masjid that were built at the time. History, however, shows that there are records of pilgrimage to the Temple in 1038, so it is believed that the temple didn’t suffer much actual damage.
Following his return from Somnath, Mahmud received the information of Turkic tribes that had launched attacks on Ghaznavid. The main threat were Seljuk Turks, who at the time managed to capture Nishapur and Merv. The last couple of years of Mahmud’s rule were spent resisting these tribes that were already nibbling away the edges of his empire.
He didn’t have great success and it is believed that he left a hard task of keeping the Empire and its borders to his sons Mohammad and Mas'ud, who were his heirs. Mahmud died in 1030, due to complications from malaria, which he contracted during one of his expeditions.
Achievements
Granted the title of "Sultan" by the Abbasid caliph in 1001;
Expanded Ghaznavid Empire significantly, raided many cities and gained great loot;
Turned Ghazni into a cultural centre of Central Asia;
Religion
It is thought that Mahmud's religious beliefs were strong. Although there is no way to get confirmation, spreading Islam might be one of the reasons for his conquests of India.
Politics
Mahmud was a great politician. Being the ruler of Ghaznavid Empire, he managed to get support of the Abbasid caliph and he was even granted the title of Sultan. This enabled him to focus on his conquests of India and other territories, as well as on consolidating Ghaznavid Empire.
Views
Some believe that Mahmud had something against Hindus personally and this is why he invaded India so often. The truth is, however, that this was in his best personal interest. Not only that it is probable that Mahmud made a deal with the Abbasid caliph to conduct these invasions but he was also attracted by the enormous potential loot, and especially the fertile region of Punjab, that he managed to annex. Although he did focus on India, he didn’t spare the Muslims on a couple of occasions, especially when he massacred the Ismailis during his attack on Multan.
Despite the fact that he was merciless, Mahmud realized that cultural progress is essential for increasing the reputation of his empire. This is why he turned Ghazni, the capital and core of Ghaznavid Empire, into a fascinating, beautiful and truly a cosmopolitan city that gathered many scholars and intellectuals of the time. Ghazni truly became a cultural center of the entire region.
Personality
Mahmud of Ghazni was a very ambitious man. He dreamt of a big empire and a great wealth and literally stopped at nothing in order to attain them.
Physical Characteristics:
His physical appearance is worthy of a Sultan and a ruler of an empire. He was portrayed with a beard and a crown on his head.
Quotes from others about the person
“(Sultan) Mahmud utterly ruined the prosperity of the country and performed there wonderful exploits, by which the Hindus became like atoms of dust scattered in all direction… This is the reason, too, why Hindu sciences have retired far away from those parts of the country conquered by us, and have fled to places which our hands cannot yet reach, to Kashmir, Benaras, and other places.” - Alberuni, great scholar of the time
“Sultan Mahmud behaved bravely and victory fell to him, he become famous as a Ghazi; and he captured Jaipal with fifteen men, who were some his sons and some his relations, and he killed five thousand Hindus and brought back much plunder.” - Qazi Abdul Ghani Khan. historian
Interests
Elephants, military tactics
Philosophers & Thinkers
Farabi
Politicians
Sabuktigin
Writers
Al-Biruni, Al-Utbi, Alberuni
Artists
Firdausi, Malik Ayaz
Connections
Mahmud married Kausari Jahan and together they had twins, Mohammad and Ma’sud. Both of them succeeded Mahmud, with Ma’sud overthrowing Mohammad the similar way that Mahmud overthrew his brother Ismail.
Father:
Abu Mansur Sabuktigin
Mahmud's father and the founder of the Ghaznavid dynasty. He is the first one to gain control of Ghazni in 977.
Son:
Mas'ud I of Ghazni
Mahmud's younger son, who ascended the throne of Ghaznavid Empire the same way as him - by overthrowing his older brother
Acquaintance:
Al-Utbi
He was Sultan Mahmud's minister and,a ccording to some sources, a historian
