Education
Studied at Moscow Land Survey Institute, Kursk Land Survey College and Zurich University.
Studied at Moscow Land Survey Institute, Kursk Land Survey College and Zurich University.
1889 expelled from Moscow Land Survey Institute for revol activity and exiled from Moscow. From 1892 in Moscow Marxist groups. 1896-1905 as an emigre in Switzerland worked with the Liberation of Labor group.
Then worked for Russian Social-Democratic Workers’ Party. 1903 joined Bolshevik faction after 2nd Russian Social-Democratic Workers’ Party Congress. 1903-1905 headed Russian Social-Democratic Workers’ Party Central Committee group in Zurich, helped to organize Ccntr Party Archives and found newspaper Vperyod.
1905 helped to prepare 3rd Russian Social-Democratic Workers’ Party Congress. Returned to St. Petersburg and took part in 1905-1907 Revol. Worked for newspapers Novaya zhizn' and Nasha mysl" and helped to found Bolshevik newspapers Volna, Vperyod and Ekho 1908-1918 director, legal Bolshevik publ house "Life and Knowledge”.
1910-1911 worked for the newspaper Zvezda and from 1912 for Pravda after 1917 February Revol member, Ed Board, Izvestiya Petrogradskogo soveta and temporary ed, Bolshevik newspaper Rabochiy i soldat October 1917-October 1920 business mang. Council of People’s Commissar. 1920-1936 chief ed, cooperative publ house ’’Life and Knowledge".
1933-1939 organisation and director, State Lit Museum, Moscow. 1945-1955 director, Museum of the History of Religion and Atheism USSR Academy of Sciences. Specialist in history of Russian revol movement, history of religion and atheism, ethnography and lit.