Animal Education: An Experimental Study On the Psychical Development of the White Rat, Correlated With the Growth of Its Nervous System, Volume 4,&Nbsp;Issue 2
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Animal Education: An Experimental Study On Psychical Development Of The White Rat
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Behavior: An Introduction to Comparative Psychology
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Animal Education: An Experimental Study on the Psychical Development of the White Rat, Correlated With the Growth of Its Nervous System (Classic Reprint)
(Excerpt from Animal Education: An Experimental Study on t...)
Excerpt from Animal Education: An Experimental Study on the Psychical Development of the White Rat, Correlated With the Growth of Its Nervous System
The object in undertaking such a problem was to throw some light upon the following questions (i) How far is it po°s§ilile (dealing with the psychological side of the problem) to give a systematic account of the gradual unfolding of the associative processes in the rat? (2) Is it possible (by a study of the nerv ous system of the rat) to find out whether or not medullated nerve fibers in the cortex of the rat are a conditio sine qua non of the rat's forming and retaining definite associations? (3) Is there any demonstrable connection between the increasing complexity of the psychical life, as manifested in the ability of the rat to form increasingly complex associations, and the number of the medullated fibers in the cortex, together with their extension toward its surface?
The method chosen for the investigation of this problem was as follows: The psychical life of the rat at different ages was studied, and the results of this investigation were then compared with the results obtained from a like study of the psychical life of the adult rat. By means of this comparison between the capa bilities of the adult rat and the capabilities of the young rat we were enabled to state approximately when the young rat reached psychical maturity.
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Psychology From The Standpoint Of A Behaviorist
3
John Broadus Watson
Lippincott, 1919
Psychology; Movements; Behaviorism; Behaviorism (Psychology); Electronic books; Psychology; Psychology / General; Psychology / Movements / Behaviorism
John Broadus Watson was an American psychologist and advertising executive.
Background
John Broadus Watson was born near Greenville, S. C. , the son of Pickens Butler Watson and Emma Kezia Roe. According to family stories Watson's father, a "high-tempered" southerner, had fought in the Civil War as a youth and had then been unable to settle down, wandering about the countryside engaging in the sawmill business. He was seldom at home. The family was dominated by John's mother and his oldest brother, Edward. They lived in genteel poverty, employing only one servant. Watson's mother and brother were fanatically devoted to a very harsh, literal Baptist faith that dominated events in the home. (John Broadus, after whom Watson was named, was a well-known evangelist of that area and era. ) Watson reacted violently against this upbringing, although while his mother was alive he tried to hide the extent of his dissent and she tended to overlook "lapses" by this son, who was her favorite. He later regretted that he had permitted himself to be baptized. For most of his adult life swearing, drinking, and other behavior in defiance of nineteenth-century evangelical standards were of major importance to him.
Education
As a boy, Watson learned the routines of farming. He attended public schools in Travelers Rest, White Horse, and Greenville. At the age of sixteen, Watson entered Furman University, where he studied psychology with Gordon B. Moore. As a student he was able but argumentative. He completed his courses in 1899, qualifying for the M. A.
Career
In 1899-1900 he taught as principal of Batesburg (S. C. ) Institute. In the fall of 1900, Watson left to do graduate work in psychology at the University of Chicago, where he had relatives and where Moore had studied. He arrived in Chicago with only fifty dollars in his pocket and sustained himself by a number of odd jobs, including waiting on tables, helping care for psychology department apparatus, and caring for the white rats of neurologist H. H. Donaldson. The family funds that saw him through Furman were no longer forthcoming, and until the 1920's Watson keenly felt his constant need for money. He always regretted that lack of funds prevented him from obtaining medical training. Despite his rejection of religion, Watson brought with him to Chicago many traditional attitudes from his South Carolina rearing. Although not given to athletics, for example, he nevertheless proudly pictured himself as a fighter. In fact, he was courteous and extraordinarily charming, winning friends and support easily. And he was consumed with the desire to make a name for himself. He first gained national press coverage when his research on his doctoral dissertation engaged antivivisectionists against him, and for decades his provocative - though professional - statements showed that he retained some of his combative character. At Chicago, Watson worked with Donaldson, functional psychologist James Rowland Angell, and Jacques Loeb, an experimental physiologist and mechanistic materialist. He also studied philosophy with John Dewey, George Herbert Mead, and James H. Tufts. Watson later pretended contempt for philosophy, but he was quite able to defend himself in that field. Neurology and physiology became his interests, and he took the Ph. D. in 1903, when only twenty-five. He stayed on at Chicago as assistant in the psychology department for a year (1903 - 1904) and then was advanced to instructor. His eight years at Chicago were happy, except for occasional anxiety about his work and his continued inability to gain financial security. Watson's doctoral dissertation was a study of the psychological development of the white rat, an animal just being established as a major laboratory subject. The research launched his career as a specialist in animal psychology. From the beginning he found that his training at home as carpenter and handyman was of great use in designing and building experimental apparatus. After taking his doctorate he continued working with rats, studying their adaptation to new conditions and the correlation of the body weight of postpartum rats with the weight of the nervous system, a quantitative endeavor utilizing surgical techniques learned from the physiologist William H. Howell at Johns Hopkins in the spring and summer of 1904. Watson also tested the reactions of rats learning to run through mazes. He investigated imitation among monkeys. He carried out some classic experiments in color discrimination. In 1907, Watson won support from the Carnegie Institution of Washington and spent three months in the Dry Tortugas, studying the behavior of noddy and sooty terns. By that time he was one of the leading figures in experimental and animal psychology. By 1906 he was preparing the annual summary of comparative psychology literature for the Psychological Bulletin. In 1907 he was named professor of comparative and experimental psychology at Johns Hopkins University. During his last year at Chicago (1907 - 1908), Watson was rethinking what he was doing. In 1904 he had been impressed by a paper in which James McKeen Cattell stressed control of human beings as the goal of psychology and rejected the introspective techniques then used in investigations of human mental functioning. Watson for several years talked with his colleagues about the direction that his thought was taking, but they discouraged him. Finally, in 1907-1908, he began to develop his idea that animal psychology could serve as the basis for human psychology, and he embodied his beliefs in a lecture presented at three different professional forums. At that point he was concentrating on comparative psychology, stressing that scientists should not attribute mental content to animals but, rather, adhere to objective observation of their behavior. Within the next four years Watson perfected a behavioristic theory of the higher thought processes based upon stimulus-response patterns of implicit speech mechanisms. He then had a fully developed human psychology emphasizing the objective study of human adaptation and behavior. Unlike many of his friends and teachers, including Loeb and Herbert Spencer Jennings, Watson did not attempt to describe the physiological processes involved in thinking, but only the observable changes in behavior after the presentation of an environmental stimulus. Except for his emphasis on adaptation, this new psychology represented a substantial shift in viewpoint from the conventional mentalism that Watson had been taught and taught for years. At Johns Hopkins, Watson was free, as he put it, to "work without supervision, " and he soon developed a fully equipped laboratory. Eventually he worked in the medical school psychiatric clinic headed by Adolf Meyer, who himself had a biological approach to human thought and behavior. Watson worked with his friend Robert M. Yerkes on color vision and experimented on learned and instinctive behavior in various animals. He again studied birds in the Tortugas in 1910, 1912, and 1913. He continued to gain professional recognition and was increasingly drawn into editing duties for the group of Psychological Review publications (1908) and the Journal of Animal Behavior (1911). William James, before his death in 1910, stated that Watson could be trusted in professional affairs, and others showed similar confidence. In the winter of 1912-1913, Watson gave some lectures at Columbia University, one of which, "Psychology as a Behaviorist Views It, " was published in Psychological Review (1913). That paper was Watson's manifesto, designed to make psychology both scientific and useful by following the model of good animal experimentation, which did not depend upon an inferred consciousness in the experimental subject, but only on reactions to stimuli. It created a sensation: a number of psychologists, especially the younger ones, felt that Watson spoke for them and the way that psychology was developing. He seemed to promise them both objectivity and social significance. In 1915, Watson became president of the American Psychological Association. In his presidential address he brought the idea of conditioned reflexes into his psychological schema. Soon thereafter he added a psychopathology, acknowledging the importance of the work of Sigmund Freud. For many years both psychologists and intellectuals knew and talked about this new departure, behaviorism, and sought applications for it not only in psychology but also in such fields as sociology and literature. From August 1917 to November 1918, Watson served in the army, working mostly with air corps personnel problems. After returning to Johns Hopkins he concentrated on a line of experiments that he had begun earlier in a very tentative fashion, trying to discover what instincts humans have when born. He utilized infants just as he earlier had used animals, and concluded that inheritance had little, and environment much, to do with behavior. Watson's plans for far more extensive infant studies - a "baby farm, " perhaps, for controlled experiments - were shattered in 1920 by divorce proceedings that were widely publicized and caused the university to ask for his resignation. Because of the circumstances of his divorce, Watson now found academia closed to him, although he lectured during the 1920's at the New School for Social Research in New York City. He took a position with the J. Walter Thompson advertising agency in New York. After a period of training, he became an account executive and, in 1924, one of four vice-presidents of the company. He later claimed that he had to use the established standards and procedures of advertising, and was not successful in introducing psychological or conditioning theory into his new work. But he did work on early consumer surveys for the agency. Watson became successful and felt financial ease for the first time. Among his important accounts were Norwich Pharmaceutical Company, Baker's Coconut, Maxwell House Coffee, Sharpe and Dohme, General Motors Overseas, and Pond's, for the last of which he inaugurated a famous and successful testimonial campaign. At one point his office in the agency was responsible for annual billings of $11 million. For some years Watson hoped to return to psychology, and he tried to spend evenings on scientific matters. But his prosperity and the harshness with which academics excluded him made his feelings ambiguous. In 1922 he wrote to Yerkes: "I have lost interest in university work. If I could get the baby work going I would be willing to starve to death. " Instead of addressing an academic audience, Watson gave popular lectures and published popular articles and books. In effect he acted as an evangelist or advertiser for the behavioristic viewpoint. His most important influence came in the rapidly expanding field of advice on child rearing. His dicta not to cuddle or spoil infants, but to condition them to lead independent lives, appeared in his own publications and in writings of other child-rearing experts of the 1920's and later. After his wife died in 1935, Watson found his life increasingly circumscribed, and he was very much less in the public eye. In 1936 he left J. Walter Thompson for William Esty and Company, again as vice-president. There he worked mostly on drug and cosmetic accounts, including Hind's Honey and Almond Cream, Dorothy Gray, and Tussy. He retired in 1945. To the end of his life he kept busy working on farming and building projects in rural Connecticut. He died in New York City.
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This is a reproduction of a book published before 1923....)
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Connections
On December 26, 1903, he was married secretly to Mary Ickes, younger sister of Harold Ickes, who later became secretary of the interior. On October 1, 1904, they were married again, publicly. They had two children. On December 31, 1920, he married Rosalie Rayner, a former graduate student. They had two sons.